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As China emerges into material and social modernity, religion has become a salient force within the nation’s culture and populace. Community churches and shrines devoted to local gods have seen a spontaneous revival that has accompanied China’s relaxation of state control on religious institutions. Although the country only recognizes five religions (Buddhism, Protestant Christianity, Catholicism, Daoism, and Islam), other local and regional deities such as Guanyin now have religious networks based not only in China but connecting followers around the world. Mayfair Mei-Hui Yang’s compilation of articles in Chinese Religiosities documents different aspects of the relationship between the Chinese government, Chinese society and spiritual reformations.
In her introduction, Yang writes that religion and the state have often been viewed as separate entities with their own practices, symbols and history. However, she argues that for most of human history, religion and state were powerful influences on each other and, in many instances, religion and state were regarded as one. There is also the misconception that Chinese history has been mostly devoid of spiritual and religious influences, but Yang argues that the cultural and political practices of the past were heavily encapsulated within religious and spiritual beliefs. She also laments that the negative products of modernization such as environmental degradation and the breakup of the traditional family structure could be tied to the secularization of society and the loss of traditional beliefs that were based upon spiritual ideologies. Much of the volume’s effort is aimed at rectifying common stereotypes about religion’s role in Chinese history and in contemporary Chinese society.
It is often confusing to describe exactly what Chinese religion was during its long history. Whereas in the West, Christianity has been the codifying force since the medieval era, China could not be described as being dominated by one religious ideology for an extended time in its history. Emperors worshipped in Buddhist temples, Daoist temples and temples for past emperors for many centuries, often picking and choosing which deities to esteem and not to esteem. Articles such as “Redeploying Confucius” by Ya Pei Kuo chronicle state strategies in employing religious symbolism in the formation of the nation state during the early 20th century. Confucius was not regarded as a major religious figure for most of Chinese history. The emperors would first worship at the Temple of Heaven and Earth before moving on towards the Temple of Land and Grain. Worship of Confucius was considered less important. After all, Confucius was a mere man. However, during the Xinzheng reforms of the Qing dynasty, Confucius was elevated as a unifying figure in Chinese history and society. The article illustrates the rationale and effectiveness of state strategies.
The complicated relationship between protestant religious movements and the State are also written about in the volume in “Christianity and Adaptation to Socialism” by Ryan Dunch. Although the Communist government does maintain control over official religious institutions in China, there is no established and codified body of law governing the supervision of the church in China. Much of these state controls have been established over time and practice. The article illuminates a topic that is often misunderstood as state control is often villainized within Christian communities. However, the article sheds light upon a relationship that is changing dynamically as China modernizes and hopefully for the better.
There is by no means enough space within this book review to illustrate the entire breadth of this volume. The book covers other issues such as the changing dynamics of Islam in the Chinese state, state control of Tibetan monasteries, and the struggle between the Falun Gong and the Communist government. The undercurrent connecting all of these articles is how the modern Chinese state interacts with the codification and emergence of spiritual movements within China. The force of modernization has influenced religion in China as much as religions have influenced Chinese society. Chinese Buddhism, which for the most part did not have an institutional structure during premodern Chinese history, has institutionalized under state pressure to codify its teachings and beliefs. House churches in China have relied on homegrown and extensive social networks to maintain their existence within a hostile political environment. On the other hand, the Chinese government and society have accepted parts of religion as beneficial: the propensity of religious organizations to volunteer and contribute to humanitarian work, the positive force of religion in emphasizing one’s civic duty. As China continues to modernize, so will religious structures in the country. The conception that modernization carries with it the burden of secularization has been exemplified within the West as European and American churches continue to lose attendance in their congregations. China has proved this model to be wrong. The future of the Chinese church and the future of religions in China are uncertain. There is one thing that is certain, however. The interaction between religion and state will grow ever more complicated as spiritual revivals continue throughout the country.
Chinese Religiosities
By Mayfair Mei-hui Yang
University of California Press; 2008; 472 pages; ISBN-10: 0520098641; ISBN-13: 978-0520098640; $29.95 at Amazon.com
Reviewed by Jonathan Hwang, a graduate from the University of California, Irvine, and studied in the area of International Studies.
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